Sunday, January 26, 2020

Carolingian Renaissance Handwriting

Carolingian Renaissance Handwriting The Carolingian Renaissance is known for the cultural transitions and great achievements that were obtained in the 8th century under the direction of Charlemagne. Charlemagne, who was also known as Carolus Magnus and Charles the Great, was one of the greatest leaders during the Middle Ages. He was a military man, king of the Franks, and was appointed as Roman emperor in 800 AD. Throughout Europe, he was seen as a great example of an emperor and Christian king. Not only did he revive the political system but also the cultural life of Europe. His activities were seen as a strong foundation of the European civilization which developed during the Middle Ages around 400 A.D. This was his effort in improving the educational standards of the people of the church and his men who held roles in the government. His choice for doing such thing was to have control with his people and others. This educational reform had many great accomplished during that period. Along with this advancement, monas tic scriptoria all over the kingdom used the same type of handwriting. Thus it made the hard work of copying the manuscripts easier and it was seen favorable by many. Also most manuscripts from the medieval times, whether with illuminations or not, were written on parchment. The usage of â€Å"vellum† signified that the manuscript was of great importance. This period allowed many more books to be made and with that more types of books were being used in society. In relation, illuminated manuscripts were items that were the most common during the Middle Ages. They were great examples of medieval painting and being well-preserved made them great surviving specimens of that time period. New innovations for manuscript layouts and embellishments were incorporated into the fabrication of manuscripts. In consequence, the many advances of the Carolingian Renaissance can be seen through the new layout and fabrication of a manuscript, the use of illuminations and different types of ill uminations being produced and the introduction of the Carolingian minuscule or Caroline writing. A typical illuminated manuscript has the components of having texts along with embellishments in the means of using decorations. These decorations range from decorated borders, initials and miniature drawings. If one were to elaborate on the exact definition of the term â€Å"illuminated manuscript†, it would be related to manuscripts highlighted with silver or gold. Earliest surviving illuminated manuscripts date back from around 400 AD to AD 600 and are thought to have been from Italy, Constantinople and Ireland. However, the majority of the surviving manuscripts come from the Middle Ages along with the many manuscripts from the 15th Century Renaissance period and the few from the Late Antiquity stage. Most of these manuscripts were made for religious purposes but evidence shows that there too was an abundance of secular texts that were illuminated. Also these illuminated manuscripts started off in the form of codices, and at times antique scrolls. There is also a continued existence of loose single sheets and some illuminated manuscript fragments which remain on papyrus form. During the Early Middle Ages, books were fabricated in monasteries for business, display or personal use. This led to the beginning of commercial scriptoria that were located in major European cities such as the ones belonging to Italy, Paris and also the Netherlands. Most medieval manuscripts illuminated or not, were scripted on parchment. Such parchment was composed of stretched and treated animal skins of sheep, calf or goat. The term vellum was used to describe manuscripts of great value and high quality. These manuscripts were important because they were used for illuminations. Vellum was made up of un-spilt calf-skin and the other high qualities of animal skins were simply considered as parchment. â€Å"A large manuscript required the use of a whole cow skin and also the whole skin of a sheep to fabricate a folded sheet of two to four pages.† Hides of a whole herd wo uld be required for thick books which made the creation of a Medieval book extremely precious and expensive. About 258 leafs would need approximately 130 animals and it would make piles of four gatherings of leafs. At the start of the Middle Ages, paper use was used to formulate manuscripts and early books that were printed had space left over for miniatures and rubrics to be incorporated later on. Illuminated initials and decorations along the margins were also commonly used. However when printing started to become more popular, there was an increase of books produced and at the same time illuminations decreased. In the early 16th century, illuminated manuscripts were still being produced but not in great quantities. These manuscripts were mainly produced for the rich individuals in society. Books were not owned by many and are seen as a great possession and treasure to have along with the great sense of importance in society. The Carolingians got a sense of Mediterranean art and culture when Charlemagne went to Rome, where he held the title as Holy Roman Emperor in AD 800. He was the symbolic representative of Rome and he since he wanted to revive the Roman culture and learning of the West, it made him the promoter of the arts. He had the goal of joining the artistic accomplishments of the Early Christian and Byzantine culture with that of his own. While Charlemagne was in power, the Byzantine Empire was divided because of Iconoclasm, which was the destruction of religious monuments and sacred images. He made the smart choice of not favouring either side. There were consequences that arose when he decided not to adopt the iconoclastic traditions and at the same time he incorporated a few human figures in society. The Carolingian art promoted the development of Western Romanesque and Gothic art. If Charlemagne partnered with the Iconoclast, Western art that one views it today would be non-existent. Evidenc e of such art can be seen from the surviving manuscripts, sculptures, works of metal and other artifacts from that age. During the Carolingian Renaissance, the illuminated manuscripts were the most number of works that survived from that era. Charlemagne had great ideas while he was in power. While in command new Gospels and liturgical works were prepared, as were educational materials used to depict historical, scientific and literary works originating from ancient authors. The Carolingian art had different monastic centers throughout the Carolingian Empire which were known as ateliers. These ateliers were special because each one had its own unique style and it was influenced by the artists and current styles of that place and time. These images were drawn after the texts were complete. Illustrators designed and planned the abstract and complex images on wax tablets which were the common drawing apparatus of that period. These wooden tablets were hollow for the incorporation of wa x and the writing apparatus used for it would be a bone or a stylus. On the other tip of the writing utensil would be a spatula to scrape away errors or to erase the whole image and is re-used again. After that process of â€Å"preliminary drawing† is finished, the drawing is then traced or illustrated meticulously on the vellum. Pinpricks and other markings are used to accomplish a great manuscript. Such work ethics can be seen with the fabrication of the Lindisfarne Gospels. Another new incorporation that can be seen in the sacred gospels is the introduction of â€Å"red dots†, as part of the page decoration which, was tedious work and needed to be done with patience and care. The sacred scriptures would also be composed of the Evangelists portrait, an image of a carpet made out of spirals and enamel work and finished off with a grand display. Other work methods can be seen through incomplete manuscripts that survived from that time. Most manuscripts usually were not composed of illustrations because they were mainly used for educational purposes and its only illuminations would be decorations on the initials. If there were manuscripts with full illuminations, it would be used for display purposes and be seen as an illustration book. That was the state of manuscripts during the Middle Ages, but great changes occurred towards the fabrication of manuscripts during Romanesque period. These changes included the incorporation of more illumination and decorations in the books and the study books contained some images, but they were not illustrated with colour. This tendency grew into the Gothic period where there were bigger image sizes but at least one if not many decorations around the page. Foliate patterns on elaborate boarders were the common fixings integrated in the manuscript. â€Å"A Gothic page might contain several areas and types of decoration; a miniature in a frame, a historiated initial beginning of a passage of text, and a border wit h drolleries.† A different artist was utilized to work on different part of the decoration. An artist had their own unique skill that they used when working on a certain piece of an image. A standardized form of Latin, which originated from Classical Latin, was used in the texts along with new formed words. Medieval Latin was most used in that time and was a common language used by the people of Europe. In fact, this language was commonly used by businessmen and scholars for communication, learning and administration purposes. The texts were usually incorporated first when it came to constructing an illuminated manuscript. Script depended on the style that were currently being used in society and the one that were most popular. Scripts such as Uncial and half-Uncial were introduced because of the ongoing development and usage of unique texts such as insular miniscule and insular majuscule. Before these texts were established, the Roman letters were used during the Middle Ages. Around the 13th century, black thick and solid letters were shown and it was made more in style around the Middle Ages. Around the 9th century, rooms made solely for writing became extremely popular and were apart of most monasteries. This room was called a scriptoria and it was there were most books were copied. This was a brutal job and it was shown through the hard work done by the monks. The process included the need to check for mistakes and to correct errors that have been made through the years. The copiers would need to study the text and script very carefully because one mistake would be a sin and they would be severely penalized. Other discrepancies such as poorly lit rooms, bad weather conditions and physical fatigue made this job even more difficult for the monks. There was also â€Å"no standard scholarly language†. Charlemagne decided to change the then current writing style and tried to make a standard method for writing. The writing style that society was used to at that time consisted to all uppercase letters and texts without interruptions and punctuations. There was no eviden t division between the words. This old writing style was the old un-spaced Roman capital script called â€Å"uncial†. Charlemagnes brilliant idea worked as it made copying and reading easier for everyone. This style of writing is called the â€Å"Carolingian Miniscule† and is still currently being used today. Unlike the older style, this new one had a separation between words and there was evident use of punctuations in the text. Charlemagne also made standards for Medieval Latin because there were evident changes in the Latin language during the last couple of decades. Different expressions, new phrases and words were developed and integrated into the language. Composing a manuscript included the copying of an old piece of literature, having a decorated picture and possessing fancy capital letters. This act was seen as a great accomplishment at that period. The sacred scripture and writings of the bible were transformed and transfigured into many different forms. Most ministers were illiterate and people who were not from the ordained clergy did not have access to these sacred texts. Charlemagne disliked oblivious priests who could not read nor comprehend their own scriptures. Charlemagne created laws and decrees that stated that clerics would loose their position and job in the office if they were illiterate. Bishops had to respect such demand and needed to be literate but there are some cases where bishops were not able to read and write. Charlemagne enforced a â€Å"standardized Vulgate Bible†, which was a common Benedictine Rule and a basic liturgy. However, in order to obtain such concept, he needed to have a â€Å"standardized written language†. Charlemagne found an orthodox churchman from England named Alcuin to help him gain a step closer to his schemes. Alcuin and his fellow monks examined many ancient classical scripts in order to find incentives for the new script. In consequence, the Carolingian miniscule was establishe d which was the unification of the small and capitalized letter. The Carolingian miniscule comprised of letters that possessed â€Å"the most decorative flourishes and the system of ligatures was eliminated.† As this style of writing dispersed into England during the 10th century and in Spain in the following century, Carolingian miniscule reformed to being the â€Å"written language of oppression and religious orthodoxy†. It established itself as the official script and literary hand and style of the Frankish region. Later on, scripts such as the ones of â€Å"Gothic†, â€Å"Roman† and â€Å"Humanists† preceded in time and thus making this script most commonly used today. Thus, Charlemagne took all these differences and transformations and added them to the new scholarly language which is known as Medieval Latin. Thus, the many advances of the Carolingian Renaissance is depicted through the new layout and fabrication of a manuscript, the use of illuminations and different types of illuminations being produced and the introduction of the Carolingian minuscule or Caroline writing. Charlemagne is seen as a great leader who has done many successful things for his people and kingdom. Though was not literate he tried and had a lot of perseverance. Depictions of Charlemagne wanting to be able to read and write are recorded throughout history. He would try and attempt to write everyday with wax tablets and even asked the help of men who were able to write. The Holy Roman Emperor would also leave notebooks and writing tablets underneath his people hoping that one day he will be able to become literate. However, it was simply too late for him to become literate because he needed to have practiced such skill since his youth. Though he was not literate he still had the ability to be a great leader. Charl emagne ruled individuals from different ancestry lines who were descendants of many races and who spoke languages that were unique from one another. Some of these individuals included the Romans, Goths, Lombards, Burgundians, Saxons, Franks and many others groups. Western Europe was filled with monasteries where several â€Å"national styles† of the cursive formations of Latin surfaced such as Merovingian, Visigothic, Germanic, and Anglo- Irish. Each party had a â€Å"monastery dialect† which was used by individuals to facilitate copying in an exclusive way and abides with each cloisters preference. His way of reconciling the many people and facilitating the hard work of the laborers made his excellent influence of the many changes he incorporated seen today. The ancient and valuable artifacts that are seen today are because of his ability to unite society and individual characteristics as one.

Saturday, January 18, 2020

America and the Great War

America and the Great War Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on jejune 1914 there was a chain reaction that many contribute to the most immediate cause of World War l. However, prior to the start of the 20th century there were many changes going on in and around Europe that can also be considered as root causes to the rise of hostilities between the countries of Europe.This essay will discuss the events that ultimately lead to the beginning of World War l, the events that drew the United States into the War, the events that led to the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles, and hat effect the war had on America's role in the world during the sass and sass. Firstly, the forces of nationalism, Imperialism and millstreams had a great many influence to the rise of hostilities that lead the beginning of World War l. Nationalism was a long-term cause of World War l, as well as many of the other causes, nationalism takes time to create.People are not born with the love of t heir country; instead they must learn to love it and thus nationalism requires a longer period of time to complete (Brown, 2009). Until the rand to late 19th century many European nations†, that Is those peoples sharing a common language and similar culture, were not united in an all-encompassing state. However, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand a rise of nationalism In the Pan-Slavish movement and also the German speaking states occurred.Germany felt nearly unstoppable as a world power following the Franco-Prussian War and because of this national pride felt that they would have no problem expanding their territory using imperialism. Specifically, Germany was attempting to control lands In Africa, a place that Britain and France were already established (Brown, 2009). As a result, Britain and France became closer allies in the conflict against Germany. Britain and France quickly found that by keeping Germany out of Africa, the Germans would be unable to build themselves Into a threatening power.Germany on the other hand, had a different idea and wished to build an empire. In order to better combat the French and prevent another Invasion, Germany began to build their military; this millstreams or the belief of a nation or its people to build and maintain a strong military, with the intention to use it whenever it Is felt necessary (Brown, 2009). France, understanding that Germany was building a large military, saw it as a necessity to in turn build a large military to protect themselves against the Germans.The British were threatened by the Germans Increasing Navy also began to build up their forces In order to remain the world's most elite Navy. With so many countries building up their military it's not hard for these countries to find a reason in which they can use their militaries against one another Germany decided against renewing a treaty with Russia, effectively opting for the Austrian alliance; while Germany's western and as tern neighbors, France and Russia, signed an alliance In 1894 united by fear and resentment of Berlin (Sheffield, 2011).Europe was divided into two armed camps: the Entente Powers and the Central Powers, and these countries populations began to see war not merely as Inevitable but even welcome (Sheffield, 2011). Germany's 1 OFF violation to its pledge to suspend unrestricted submarine warfare in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and its attempts to entice Mexico into an alliance against the United States were the main reasons that were presented before Congress as a declaration of war (US Department of State, 2013).Following the sinking of an unarmed French boat, the Sussex, in the English Channel in March 1916, President Wilson had threatened to sever diplomatic relations with Germany, unless the German Government refrained from attacking all passenger ships, and allowed the crews of enemy merchant vessels to escape from their ships prior to any attack. On May 4, 1916, the German Government had accepted these terms and conditions in what came to be known as the â€Å"Sussex pledge† (US Department of State, 2013).Ethnicity played a role in the US neutrality because so many immigrants had locked to the United States during the Industrial Revolution that many of these immigrants still felt strong ties to their homelands back in Europe. The United States was afraid that these ties would hinder soldiers on the battlefield or cause an uproar state side if the United States Joined the war. The United States wanted to keep trade open with both sides of the war and thus keep neutral. However, the allied forces want to stop goods from reaching Germany so they began to seize them.German forces wanted to stop goods from reaching Allied forces and began to attack US ships with U-boats. The entrance of the resource-rich Americans dealt a powerful psychological and military blow to the Germans and greatly hastened their capitulation (Schultz, 2013). Contribut ions to the war effort were not confined to the battlefield. The entire American economy was embroiled to win the war; from planting extra vegetables to keeping the furnace turned off, American civilians provided extra food and fuel to the war effort (US History, 2013).Had the United States not entered the war then many of people living in and around Europe would have been even more effect without these supplies. The United States government engaged in a massive propaganda campaign to raise troops and money (US History, 2013). Where dissent was apparent, it was stifled, prompting many to question whether American civil liberties were in Jeopardy. In the end, the war was won, but the peace was lost. The Treaty of Versailles as presented by President Wilson was rejected by the Senate.In setting policy for ending the war, President Wilson, the idealist, sought a â€Å"peace without victory,† while Senator Henry Lodge, the realist, demented Germany's unconditional surrender (US S enate, 2001). President Wilson offended the Senate by refusing to include senators among the negotiators accompanying him to the Paris Peace Conference and by making conference results public before discussing them with committee members (US Senate, 2001). â€Å"In November 1919, Senator Lodge sent to the Senate floor a treaty with 14 reservations, but no amendments.In the face of President Willow's continued unwillingness to negotiate, the Senate on November 19, 1919, for the first time in its history, rejected a peace treaty' (US Senate, 2001). President Wilson believed that the international organization, the League of Nations, would mitigate the failures of the Versailles Treaty while ensuring free trade, reducing reparations against Germany, extending self-determination beyond Europe, and punishing aggressor nations (History Matter, 2013).Following the failed Treaty of Versailles American foreign policy of the sass was created by isolationism in reaction to the idealistic fore ign policy of President son. Tater the united U States and helped the Allies in World War l, the United S suffered great losses with no payments in return. Thus, America isolated itself from he rest of the world and promised that the United States would not get involved in any future European conflicts by signing treaties designed to keep them out of war.

Thursday, January 9, 2020

The Insider Secrets of Pay for College Term Paper

The Insider Secrets of Pay for College Term Paper Whispered Pay for College Term Paper Secrets Colleges may also underestimate certain expenses, such as textbook outlays, in order to earn their financial aid offer seem to be more generous. If graduation prices are low or it appears the institution's graduates have a hard time repaying their loans, you might want to look elsewhere. Scholarships are a type of student financial aid that do not demand repayment, so long as you satisfy the conditions of the award and utilize it as directed. Even in the event that you defer your loans, with tuition costs being what they are, you'll likely have to take out more loans in order to return to school. Tuition is a vital need. The price of tuition alone is sufficient to break the bank. Tuition costs at U.S. universities are among the highest on the planet. In the event the federal government will subsidize student loans, he stated, then colleges have to be held accountable to put money into their students. Every university would like to draw the stereotypical college freshmen. Let's face it college may be an expensive experience. If you would like to pick the suitable college from the beginning, start looking into things like the school's accreditation status. Another sort of financial aid that lots of students overlook is work-study. To find more information, check out five compelling ways adult students may benefit from hybrid learning. Students of color, for instance, are more inclined to attend a school with a high proportion of students living beneath the poverty line. Many adult students don't have the alternative of forfeiting their full-time job to engage in a degree. Paying for universal health care in the united states, isn't a really complicated issue. By way of example, transportation costs may differ based on whether the college is close to home or halfway through the country. There are four varieties of income-based plans you can select from. College is the ideal place to launch your very first company, and here are numerous reasons why. Out-of-pocket price is a measure of precisely how much the college is truly likely to cost you. College campuses are a gold mine for big business since they can market to a huge seg ment without having to spend a good deal of money. Besides the money and business of the NCAA, paying athletes might be a way to eliminate cheating when it has to do with rules and bribing. Discuss how you'll become a productive student in the next several years, and the way you will make decent use of the amount of money you might be awarded. Being part of student life is a fantastic way to discover a problem that many of students need solved. Don't give up college, just have a leave of absence to go work on whatever you need to work on. Firstly, you might be fortunate enough to find and make an application for a job posting through your school's career center or an internet job board. From tutor to analyst, and from writer to auditor, there are many options out there for every kind of engineering student trying to find a small amount of extra money. The Benefits of Pay for College Term Paper The individuals who don't really understand the reason why they're in college. Sure, college includes a boatload of advantages. Free college isn't truly free. Deciding upon the correct college can be a complex feat for anybody. Life on campus isn't as easy as it might appear. College is the ideal time to begin a business since you don't have any significant responsibilities aside from college. The NCAA schools can decide to compete, or else they can accept becoming the amateurs. Flexible, self-paced programs may also help make higher education cheaper. You might be entitled to scholarships or grants that could reduce the price of attending your program. The schools generally have fewer resources, which can impact the quality of education. Many schools provide co-op programs that enable students to acquire real-world experience regarding the fields they're studying. About 200 schools would be qualified to participate.

Wednesday, January 1, 2020

Staying Young And Looking `` Beautiful `` - 1097 Words

Staying young and looking â€Å"beautiful† has been a coveted notion throughout past cultures and into today’s society. In order to stay young, many anti-aging interventions have been tried throughout the years. Beauty has been an important factor throughout time. For instance, â€Å"an obsession with immortality is a central theme in a Babylonian legend about King Gilgamesh, who ruled southern Mesopotamia in about 3000 B.C.† (Post, 2004). Although this is a legend, slowing or even reversing the aging process occurred in other cultures. Stated in, The fountain of youth cultural, scientific, and ethical perspectives on a biomedical goal, â€Å"In the third century B.C., adherents of the Taoist religion in China developed a systematic program fro prolonging life and perhaps the oldest written record of attempts to reverse aging is in an Egyptian papyrus, circa 1600 B.C., which provides instructions for preparing an ointment that transforms an old man into a yout h of 20 and claims that it has been found effective myriad times† (Post, 2004). The obsession for beauty and to stop the aging process doesn’t stop there. Such things as the use precious metals as eating utensils, grafts from the sexual organs of animal species, cell injections from the tissues of newborn or fetal animals, consumption of elixirs, drugs, hormones, dietary supplements, and the Fountain of Youth have all been attempted to stop the aging process (Fishman, Binstock, Lambrix, 2008). 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